United States of America
CAPITAL: Washington, D.C. (District of Columbia). FLAG: The flag consists of 13 alternate stripes, 7 red and 6 white; these represent the 13 original colonies. Fifty 5-pointed white stars, representing the present number of states in the Union, are placed in 9 horizontal rows alternately of 6 and 5 against a blue field in the upper left corner of the flag. OFFICIAL SEAL: obverse: An American eagle with outstretched wings bears a shield consisting of 13 alternating white and red stripes with a broad blue band across the top. The right talon clutches an olive branch, representing peace; in the left are 13 arrows, symbolizing military strength. The eagle's beak holds a banner with the motto "E pluribus unum" (From many, one); overhead is a constellation of 13 five-pointed stars in a glory. reverse: Above a truncated pyramid is an all-seeing eye within a triangle; at the bottom of this triangle appear the roman numerals MDCCLXXVI (1776). The pyramid stands on a grassy ground, against a backdrop of mountains. The words "Annuit Coeptis" (He has favored our undertakings) and, on a banner, "Novus Ordo Seclorum" (A new order of the ages) surround the whole. ANTHEM: The Star-Spangled Banner. MOTTO: In God We Trust. MONETARY UNIT: The dollar ($) of 100 cents is a paper currency with a floating rate. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents and 1 dollar, and notes of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollars. Although issuance of higher notes ceased in 1969, a limited number of notes of 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 dollars remain in circulation. A gold-colored 1 dollar coin featuring Sacagawea was introduced in 2000. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The imperial system is in common use; however, the use of metrics in industry is increasing, and the metric system is taught in public schools throughout the United States. Common avoirdupois units in use are the avoirdupois pound of 16 oz or 453.5924277 gm; the long ton of 2,240 lb or 35,840 oz; and the short ton, more commonly used, of 2,000 lb or 32,000 oz. (Unless otherwise indicated, all measures given in tons are in short tons.) Liquid measures: 1 gallon = 231 cu in = 4 quarts = 8 pints. Dry measures: 1 bushel = 4 pecks = 32 dry quarts = 64 dry pints. Linear measures: 1 ft = 12 in; 1 statute mi = 1,760 yd = 5,280 ft. Metric equivalent: 1 m = 39.37 in. FEDERAL HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr., 3rd Monday in January; Lincoln's Birthday, 12 February (only in the northern and western states); Washington's Birthday, 3rd Monday in February; Memorial or Decoration Day, last Monday in May; Independence Day, 4 July; Labor Day, 1st Monday in September; Columbus Day, 2nd Monday in October; Election Day, 1st Tuesday after the 1st Monday in November; Veterans or Armistice Day, 11 November; Thanksgiving Day, 4th Thursday in November; Christmas, 25 December. TIME: Eastern, 7 am = noon GMT; Central, 6 am = noon GMT; Mountain, 5 am = noon GMT; Pacific (includes the Alaska panhandle), 4 am = noon GMT; Yukon, 3 am = noon GMT; Alaska and Hawaii, 2 am = noon GMT; western Alaska, 1 am = noon GMT.
Outstanding inventors were Robert Fulton (1765–1815), who developed the steamboat; Eli Whitney (1765–1825), inventor of the cotton gin and mass production techniques; Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791–1872), who invented the telegraph; and Elias Howe (1819–67), who invented the sewing machine. Alexander Graham Bell (b.Scotland, 1847–1922) gave the world the telephone. Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was responsible for hundreds of inventions, among them the long-burning incandescent electric lamp, the phonograph, automatic telegraph devices, a motion picture camera and projector, the microphone, and the mimeograph. Lee De Forest (1873–1961), the "father of the radio," developed the vacuum tube and many other inventions. Vladimir Kosma Zworykin (b.Russia, 1889–1982) was principally responsible for the invention of television. Two brothers, Wilbur Wright (1867–1912) and Orville Wright (1871–1948), designed, built, and flew the first successful motor-powered airplane. Amelia Earhart (1898–1937) and Charles Lindbergh (1902–74) were aviation pioneers. Pioneers in the space program include John Glenn (b.1921), the first US astronaut to orbit the earth, and Neil Armstrong (b.1930), the first man to set foot on the moon.
Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (1753–1814), developed devices for measuring light and heat, and the physicist Joseph Henry (1797–1878) did important work in magnetism
Presidents of the United States
NAME | BORN | DIED | OTHER MAJOR OFFICES HELD | RESIDENCE AT ELECTION | |
1 | George Washington | Westmoreland County, Va., 22 February 1732 | Mt. Vernon, Va., 14 December 1799 | Commander in Chief, Continental Army (1775–83) | Mt. Vernon, Va. |
2 | John Adams | Braintree (later Quincy), Mass., 30 October 1735 | Quincy, Mass., 4 July 1826 | Representative, Continental Congress (1774–77); US vice president (1797–97) | Quincy, Mass. |
3 | Thomas Jefferson | Goochland (now Albemarle) County, Va., 13 April 1743 | Monticello, Va., 4 July 1826 | Representative, Continental Congress (1775–76); governor of Virginia (1779–81); secretary of state (1790–93); US vice president (1797–1801) | Monticello, Va. |
4 | James Madison | Port Conway, Va., 16 March 1751 | Montpelier, Va., 28 June 1836 | Representative, Continental Congress (1780–83; 1786–88); US representative (1789–97); secretary of state (1801–9) | Montpelier, Va. |
5 | James Monroe | Westmoreland County, Va. 28 April 1758 | New York, N.Y., 4 July 1831 | US senator (1790–94); governor of Virginia (1799–1802); secretary of state (1811–17); secretary of war (1814–15) | Leesburg, Va. |
6 | John Quincy Adams | Braintree (later Quincy), Mass., 11 July 1767 | Washington, D.C., 23 February 1848 | US senator (1803–8); secretary of state (1817– 25); US representative (1831–48) | Quincy, Mass. |
7 | Andrew Jackson | Waxhaw, Carolina frontier, 15 March 1767 | The Hermitage, Tenn., 8 June 1845 | US representative (1796–97); US senator (1797– 98) | The Hermitage, Tenn. |
8 | Martin Van Buren | Kinderhook, N.Y., 5 December 1782 | Kinderhook, N.Y., 24 July 1862 | US senator (1821–28); governor of New York (1829); secretary of state (1829–31); US vice president (1833–37) | New York |
9 | William Henry Harrison | Charles City County, Va., 9 February 1773 | Washington, D.C., 4 April 1841 | Governor of Indiana Territory (1801–13); US representative (1816–19); US senator (1825–28) | North Bend, Ohio |
10 | John Tyler | Charles City County, Va., 29 March 1790 | Richmond, Va., 18 January 1862 | US representative (1816–21); governor of Virginia (1825–27); US senator (1827–36); US vice president (1841) | Richmond, Va. |
11 | James K. Polk | Mecklenburg County, N.C., 2 November 1795 | Nashville, Tenn., 15 June 1849 | US representative (1825–39); governor of Tennessee (1839–41) | Nashville, Tenn. |
12 | Zachary Taylor | Orange County, Va., 24 November 1784 | Washington, D.C., 9 July 1850 | — | Louisiana |
13 | Millard Fillmore | Cayuga County, N.Y., 7 January 1800 | Buffalo, N.Y., 8 March 1874 | US representative (1833–35; 1837–43); US vice president (1849–50) | Buffalo, N.Y. |
14 | Franklin Pierce | Hillsboro, N.H., 23 November 1804 | Concord, N.H., 8 October 1869 | US representative, (1833–37); US senator (1837– 43) | Concord, N.H. |
15 | James Buchanan | Mercersburg, Pa., 23 April 1791 | Lancaster, Pa., 1 June 1868 | US representative (1821–31); US senator (1834– 45); secretary of state (1845–49) | Lancaster, Pa. |
16 | Abraham Lincoln | Hodgenville, Ky., 12 February 1809 | Washington, D.C., 15 April 1865 | US representative (1847–49) | Springfield, Ill. |
17 | Andrew Johnson | Raleigh, N.C., 29 December 1808 | Carter Station, Tenn., 31 July 1875 | US representative (1843–53); governor of Tennessee (1853–57; 1862–65); US senator (1857– 62); US vice president (1865) | Greeneville, Tenn. |
18 | Ulysses S. Grant | Point Pleasant, Ohio, 27 April 1822 | Mount McGregor, N.Y., 23 July 1885 | Commander, Union Army (1864–65); secretary of war (1867–68) | Galena, Ill. |
19 | Rutherford B. Hayes | Delaware, Ohio, 4 October 1822 | Fremont, Ohio, 17 January 1893 | US representative (1865–67); governor of Ohio (1868–72; 1876–77) | Fremont, Ohio |
20 | James A. Garfield | Orange, Ohio, 19 November 1831 | Elberon, N.J., 19 September 1881 | US representative (1863–80) | Mentor, Ohio |
21 | Chester A. Arthur | Fairfield, Vt., 5 October 1829 | New York, N.Y., 18 November 1886 | US vice president (1881) | New York, N.Y. |
22 | Grover Cleveland | Caldwell, N.J., 18 March 1837 | Princeton, N.J., 24 June 1908 | Governor of New York (1882–84) | Albany, N.Y. |
23 | Benjamin Harrison | North Bend, Ohio 20 August 1833 | Indianapolis, Ind., 13 March 1901 | US senator (1881–87) | Indianapolis, Ind. |
PARTY | % OF POPULAR VOTE | % OF ELECTORAL VOTE1,2 | TERMS IN OFFICE5 | VICE PRESIDENTS | NOTABLE EVENTS | |
Federalist | — | 50.0 | 30 April 1789–4 March 1793 | John Adams | Federal government organized; Bill of Rights enacted (1791); Whiskey Rebellion suppressed (1794); North Carolina, Rhode Island, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee enter Union. | 1 |
Federalist | — | 25.7 | 4 March 1797–4 March 1801 | Thomas Jefferson | Alien and Sedition Acts passed (1798); Washington, D.C., becomes US capital (1800) | 2 |
Dem.–Rep. | — | 26.4 3 92.0 | 4 March 1801–4 March 1805 | Aaron Burr George Clinton | Louisiana Purchase (1803); Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803– 6); Ohio enters Union. | 3 |
Dem.–Rep. | — | 69.7 58.9 | 4 March 1809–4 March 1818 4 March 1813–4 March 1817 | George Clinton Elbridge Gerry | War of 1812 (1812–14); protective tariffs passed (1816); Louisiana, Indiana enter Union. | 4 |
Dem.–Rep. | — | 84.3 | 4 March 1817–4 March 1821 4 March 1821–4 March 1825 | Daniel D. Tompkins Daniel D. Tompkins | Florida purchased from Spain (1819–21); Missouri Compromise (1820); Monroe Doctrine (1823); Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri enter Union. | 5 |
National Republican | 30.9 | 38.0 4 | 4 March 1825–4 March 1829 | John C. Calhoun | Period of political antagonisms, producing little legislation; road and canal construction supported; Erie Canal opens (1825). | 6 |
Democrat | 56.0 54.2 | 68.2 76.6 | 4 March 1829–4 March 1833 | John C. Calhoun Martin Van Buren | Introduction of spoils system; Texas Republic established (1836); Arkansas, Michigan enter Union. | 7 |
Democrat | 50.8 | 57.8 | 4 March 1837–4 March 1841 | Richard M. Johnson | Financial panic (1837) and subsequent depression. | 8 |
Whig | 52.9 | 79.6 | 4 March 1841–4 April 1841 | John Tyler | Died of pneumonia one month after taking office. | 9 |
Whig | — | — | 4 April 1841–4 March 1845 | — | Monroe Doctrine extended to Hawaiian Islands (1842); Second Seminole War in Florida ends (1842). | 10 |
Democrat | 49.5 | 61.8 | 4 March 1845–4 March 1849 | George M. Dallas | Boundary between US and Canada set at 49th parallel (1846); Mexican War (1846–48), ending with Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848); California gold rush begins (1848); Florida, Texas, Iowa, Wisconsin enter Union. | 11 |
Whig | 47.3 | 56.2 | 4 March 1849–9 July 1850 | Millard Fillmore | Died after 16 months in office. | 12 |
Whig | — | — | 9 July 1850–4 March 1853 | — | Fugitive Slave Law (1850); California enters Union. | 13 |
Democrat | 50.8 | 85.8 | 4 March 1853–4 March 1857 | William R. King | Gadsden Purchase (1853); Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854); trade opened with Japan (1854). | 14 |
Democrat | 45.3 | 58.8 | 4 March 1857–4 March 1861 | John C. Breckinridge | John Brown's raid at Harpers Ferry, Va. (now W. Va.; 1859); South Carolina secedes (1860); Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas enter Union. | 15 |
Republican | 39.8 55.0 | 59.4 91.0 | 4 March 1861–4 March 1865 4 March 1865–15 April 1865 | Hannibal Hamlin Andrew Johnson | Confederacy established, Civil War begins (1851); Emancipation Proclamation (1863); Confederacy defeated (1865); Lincoln assassinated (1865); West Virginia, Nevada attain statehood. | 16 |
Republican | — | — | 15 April 1865–4 March 1869 | — | Reconstruction Acts (1867); Alaska purchased from Russia (1867); Johnson impeached but acquitted (1868); Nebraska enters Union. | 17 |
Republican | 52.7 55.6 | 72.8 78.1 | 4 March 1869–4 March 1873 4 March 1873–4 March 1877 | Schuyler Colfax Henry Wilson | Numerous government scandals; financial panic (1873); Colorado enters Union. | 18 |
Republican | 48.0 | 50.1 | 4 March 1877–4 March 1881 | William A. Wheeler | Federal troops withdrawn from South (1877); civil service reform begun. | 19 |
Republican | 48.3 | 58.0 | 4 March 1881–19 Sept. 1881 | Chester A. Arthur | Shot after 4 months in office, dead 2 1 / 2 months later. | 20 |
Republican | — | — | 19 Sept. 1881–4 March 1885 | — | Chinese immigration banned despite presidential veto (1882); Civil Service Commission established by Pendleton Act (1883). | 21 |
Democrat | 48.5 | 54.6 | 4 March 1885–4 March 1889 | Thomas A. Hendricks | Interstate Commerce Act (1887) | 22 |
Republican | 47.8 | 58.1 | 4 March 1889–4 March 1893 | Levi P. Morton | Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890); North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming enter Union. | 23 |
Presidents of the United States (continued)
NAME | BORN | DIED | OTHER MAJOR OFFICES HELD | RESIDENCE AT ELECTION | |
1 Percentage of electors actually voting. | |||||
2 In the elections of 1789, 1792, 1796, and 1800, each elector voted for two candidates for president. The candidate receiving the highest number of votes was elected president; the next highest, vice president. Percentages in table are of total vote cast. From 1804 onward, electors were required to designate which vote was for president and which for vice president, and an electoral majority was required. | |||||
24 | Grover Cleveland | Caldwell, N.J., 18 March 1837 | Princeton, N.J., 24 June 1908 | Governor of New York (1882–84) | New York, N.Y. |
25 | William McKinley | Niles, Ohio, 29 January 1843 | Buffalo, N.Y., 14 September 1901 | US representative (1877–83; 1885–91); governor of Ohio (1892–96) | Canton, Ohio |
26 | Theodore Roosevelt | New York, N.Y., 27 October 1858 | Oyster Bay, N.Y., 6 January 1919 | Governor of New York (1899–1900); US vice president (1901) | Oyster Bay, N.Y. |
27 | William H. Taft | Cincinnati, Ohio, 15 September 1857 | Washington, D.C., 8 March 1930 | Governor of Philippines (1901–4); secretary of war (1904–8); chief justice of the US (1921–30) | Washington, D.C. |
28 | Woodrow Wilson | Staunton, Va., 28 December 1856 | Washington, D.C., 3 February 1924 | Governor of New Jersey (1911–13) | Trenton, N.J. |
29 | Warren G. Harding | Blooming Grove, Ohio, 2 November 1865 | San Francisco, Calif., 2 August 1923 | US senator (1915–21) | Marion, Ohio |
30 | Calvin Coolidge | Plymouth Notch, Vt., 4 July 1872 | Northampton, Mass., 5 January 1933 | Governor of Massachusetts (1919–20); US vice president (1921–23) | Boston, Mass. |
31 | Herbert Hoover | West Branch, Iowa, 10 August 1874 | New York, N.Y., 20 October 1964 | Secretary of commerce (1921–29) | Stanford, Calif. |
32 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | Hyde Park, N.Y., 30 January 1882 | Warm Springs, Ga., 12 April 1945 | Governor of New York (1929–1933) | Hyde Park, N.Y. |
33 | Harry S Truman | Lamar, Mo., 8 May 1884 | Kansas City, Mo., 26 December 1972 | US senator (1935–45); US vice president (1945) | Independence, Mo. |
34 | Dwight D. Eisenhower | Denison, Tex., 14 October 1890 | Washington, D.C., 28 March 1969 | Supreme allied commander in Europe (1943–44); Army chief of staff (1945–48) | New York |
35 | John F. Kennedy | Brookline, Mass., 29 May 1917 | Dallas, Tex., 22 November 1963 | US representative (1947–52); US senator (1953–60) | Massachusetts |
36 | Lyndon B. Johnson | Stonewall, Tex., 27 August 1908 | Johnson City, Tex., 22 January 1973 | US representative (1937–48); US senator (1949–60); US vice president (1961–63) | Johnson City, Tex. |
37 | Richard M. Nixon | Yorba Linda, Calif., 9 January 1913 | New York, N.Y., 22 April 1994 | US representative (1947–51); US senator (1951–53); US vice president (1953–61) | New York, N.Y. |
38 | Gerald R. Ford | Omaha, Neb., 14 July 1913 | — | US representative (1949–73); US vice president (1973–74) | Grand Rapids, Mich. |
39 | James E. Carter | Plains, Ga., 1 October 1924 | — | Governor of Georgia (1951–75) | Plains, Ga. |
40 | Ronald W. Reagan | Tampico, Ill., 6 February 1911 | — | Governor of California (1967–76) | Los Angeles, Calif. |
41 | George H. W. Bush | Milton, Mass., 12 June 1924 | — | US representative (1967–71) Vice president (1980–88) | Houston, Texas |
42 | William J. Clinton | Hope, Arkansas, 19 August 1946 | — | Attorney general of Arkansas (1977–79) Governor of Arkansas (1979–81; 1983–92) | Little Rock, Arkansas |
43 | George W. Bush | New Haven, Conn. 6 July 1946 | — | Governor of Texas (1994–2000) | Midland, Texas |
PARTY | % OF POPULAR VOTE | % OF ELECTORAL VOTE1,2 | TERMS IN OFFICE5 | VICE PRESIDENTS | NOTABLE EVENTS | |
3 Electoral vote tied between Jefferson and Aaron Burr; elections decided in House of Representatives. | ||||||
4 No candidate received a majority; election decided in House. | ||||||
5 In the event of a president's death or removal from office, his duties are assumed to devolve immediately upon his successor, even if he does not immediately take the oath of office. | ||||||
Democrat | 46.1 | 62.4 | 4 March 1893–4 March 1897 | Adlai E. Stevenson | Financial panic (1893); Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed (1893); Utah enters Union. | 24 |
Republican | 51.0 | 60.6 | 4 March 1897–4 March 1901 | Garret A. Hobart Theodore Roosevelt | Spanish–American War (1898); Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines ceded by Spain; independent Republic of Hawaii annexed; US troops sent to China to suppress Boxer Rebellion (1900); McKinley assassinated. | 25 |
Republican | 56.4 | 70.6 | 14 Sept. 1901–4 March 1905 4 March 1905–4 March 1909 | Charles W. Fairbanks | Antitrust and conservation policies emphasized; Roosevelt awarded Nobel Peace Prize (1906) for mediating settlement of Russo–Japanese War; Panama Canal construction begun (1907); Oklahoma enters Union. | 26 |
Republican | 51.6 | 66.5 | 4 March 1909–4 March 1913 | James S. Sherman | Federal income tax ratified (1913); New Mexico, Arizona enter Union. | 27 |
Democrat | 41.8 49.2 | 81.9 52.2 | 4 March 1913–4 March 1917 4 March 1917–4 March 1921 | Thomas R. Marshall Thomas R. Marshall | Clayton Antitrust Act (1914); US Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark (1917); US enters World War I (1917); Treaty of Versailles signed (1919) but not ratified by US; constitutional amendments enforce prohibition (1919), enfranchise women (1920). | 28 |
Republican | 60.3 | 76.1 | 4 March 1921–2 Aug. 1923 | Calvin Coolidge | Teapot Dome scandal (1923–24). | 29 |
Republican | 54.1 | 71.9 | 3 Aug. 1923–4 March 1925 4 March 1925–4 March 1929 | Charles G. Dawes | Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928). | 30 |
Republican | 58.2 | 83.6 | 4 March 1929–4 March 1933 | Charles Curtis | Stock market crash (1929) inaugurates Great Depression. | 31 |
Democrat | 57.4 60.8 54.7 53.4 | 88.9 98.5 84.6 81.4 | 4 March 1933–20 Jan. 1937 20 Jan. 1937–20 Jan. 1941 20 Jan. 1941–20 Jan. 1945 20 Jan. 1945–12 April 1945 | John N. Garner John N. Garner Henry A. Wallace Harry S Truman | New Deal social reforms; prohibition repealed (1933); US enters World War II (1941) | 32 |
Democrat | — | — | 12 April 1945–20 Jan. 1949 20 Jan. 1949–20 Jan. 1953 | Alben W. Barkley | United Nations founded (1945); US nuclear bombs dropped on Japan (1945); World War II ends (1945); Philippines granted independence (1946); Marshall Plan (1945); Korean conflict begins (1950); era of McCarthyism. | 33 |
Republican | 55.1 57.4 | 83.2 86.1 | 20 Jan. 1953–20 Jan. 1957 20 Jan. 1957–20 Jan. 1961 | Richard M. Nixon Richard M. Nixon | Korean conflict ended (1953); Supreme Court orders school desegregation (1954); Alaska, Hawaii enter Union. | 34 |
Democrat | 49.7 | 56.4 | 20 Jan. 1961–22 Nov. 1963 | Lyndon B. Johnson | Conflicts with Cuba (1961–62); aboveground nuclear test ban treaty (1963); Kennedy assassinated. | 35 |
Democrat | 61.1 | 90.3 | 22 Nov. 1963–20 Jan. 1965 20 Jan. 1965–20 Jan. 1969 | Hubert H. Humphrey | Great Society programs; Voting Rights Act (1965); escalation of US military role in Indochina; race riots, political assassinations. | 36 |
Republican | 43.4 60.7 | 55.9 96.7 | 20 Jan. 1969–20 Jan. 1973 | Spiro T. Agnew Spiro T. Agnew Gerald R. Ford | First lunar landing (1969); arms limitation treaty with Soviet Union (1972); US withdraws from Viet–Nam (1973); Agnew resigns in tax scandal (1973); Nixon resigns at height of Watergate scandal (1974). | 37 |
Republican | — | — | 9 Aug. 1974–20 Jan. 1977 | Nelson A. Rockefeller | First combination of unelected president and vice president; Nixon pardoned (1974). | 38 |
Democrat | 50.1 | 55.2 | 20 Jan. 1977–20 Jan. 1981 | Walter F. Mondale | Carter mediates Israel-Egypt peace accord (1978); Panama Canal treaties ratified (1979); tensions with Iran (1979–81). | 39 |
Republican | 50.8 58.8 | 90.9 97.6 | 20 Jan. 1981–20 Jan. 1985 20 Jan. 1985–20 Jan. 1989 | George H. W. Bush George H. W. Bush | Defense buildup; social spending cuts; rising trade and budget deficits; tensions with Nicaragua. | 40 |
Republican | 54.0 | 79.2 | 20 Jan. 1989–20 Jan. 1993 | J. Danforth Quayle | Multi-national force repelled Iraqi invaders from Kuwait; savings and loan crisis; 1991 recession. | 41 |
Democrat | 43.0 49.2 | 69.7 70.4 | 20 Jan. 1993–20 Jan. 1997 20 Jan. 1997–20 Jan. 2001 | Albert Gore, Jr. | Passed North American Free Trade Agreement; enacted crime bill banning assault weapons; sent troops to Haiti to restore first democratically elected Haitian president to power after military coup. | 42 |
Republican | 47.87 | 50.37 | 20 Jan. 2001– | Richard B. Cheney | Lowered taxes. Engaged in war in Afghanistan and Iraq after terrorist attacks on Washington and New York. Created the Department of Homeland Secruity. Substantially increased the federal deficit. | 43 |
and electricity. Outstanding botanists and naturalists were John Bartram (1699–1777); his son William Bartram (1739–1832); Louis Agassiz (b.Switzerland, 1807–73); Asa Gray (1810–88); Luther Burbank (1849–1926), developer of a vast number of new and improved varieties of fruits, vegetables, and flowers; and George Washington Carver (1864–1943), known especially for his work on industrial applications for peanuts. John James Audubon (1785–1851) won fame as an ornithologist and artist.
Distinguished physical scientists include Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834–1906), astronomer and aviation pioneer; Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), mathematical physicist, whose work laid the basis for physical chemistry; Henry Augustus Rowland (1848–1901), who did important research in magnetism and optics; and Albert Abraham Michelson (b.Germany, 1852–1931), who measured the speed of light and became the first of a long line of US Nobel Prize winners. The chemists Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946) and Irving Langmuir (1881–1957) developed a theory of atomic structure.
The theory of relativity was conceived by Albert Einstein (b.Germany, 1879–1955), generally considered the greatest mind in the physical sciences since Newton. Percy Williams Bridgman (1882–1961) was the father of operationalism and studied the effect of high pressures on materials. Arthur Holly Compton (1892–1962) made discoveries in the field of X rays and cosmic rays. The physical chemist Harold Clayton Urey (1893–1981) discovered heavy hydrogen. Isidor Isaac Rabi (b.Austria, 1898–1988), nuclear physicist, did important work in magnetism, quantum mechanics, and radiation. Enrico Fermi (b.Italy, 1901–54) created the first nuclear chain reaction, in Chicago in 1942, and contributed to the development of the atomic and hydrogen bombs. Also prominent in the splitting of the atom were Leo Szilard (b.Hungary, 1898–1964), J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–67), and Edward Teller (b.Hungary, 1908). Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901–58) developed the cyclotron. Carl David Anderson (1905–91) discovered the positron. Mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894–1964) developed the science of cybernetics.
Outstanding figures in the biological sciences include Theobald Smith (1859–1934), who developed immunization theory and practical immunization techniques for animals; the geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866–1945), who discovered the heredity functions of chromosomes; and neurosurgeon Harvey William Cushing (1869–1939). Selman Abraham Waksman (b.Russia, 1888–1973), a microbiologist specializing in antibiotics, was codiscoverer of streptomycin. Edwin Joseph Cohn (1892–1953) is noted for his work in the protein fractionalization of blood, particularly the isolation of serum albumin. Philip Showalter Hench (1896–1965) isolated and synthesized cortisone. Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904–71) was the first to isolate and crystallize a virus. Jonas Edward Salk (1914–95) developed an effective killed-virus poliomyelitis vaccine, and Albert Bruce Sabin (1906–93) contributed oral, attenuated live-virus polio vaccines. ^F0^Adolf Meyer (b.Switzerland, 1866–1950) developed the concepts of mental hygiene and dementia praecox and the theory of psychobiology; Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949) created the interpersonal theory of psychiatry. Social psychologist George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and behaviorist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–90) have been influential in the 20th century.
A pioneer in psychology who was also an influential philosopher was William James (1842–1910). Other leading US philosophers are Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914); Josiah Royce (1855–1916); John Dewey (1859–1952), also famous for his theories of education; George Santayana (b.Spain, 1863–1952); Rudolf Carnap (b.Germany, 1891–1970); and Willard Van Orman Quine (b.1908). Educators of note include Horace Mann (1796–1859), Henry Barnard (1811–1900), and Charles William Eliot (1834–1926). Noah Webster (1758–1843) was the outstanding US lexicographer, and Melvil Dewey (1851–1931) was a leader in the development of library science. Thorstein Bunde Veblen (1857–1929) wrote books that have strongly influenced economic and social thinking. Also important in the social sciences have been sociologists Talcott Parsons (1902–79) and William Graham Sumner (1840–1910) and anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901–78).
Social reformers of note include Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802–87), who led movements for the reform of prisons and insane asylums; William Lloyd Garrison (1805–79) and Frederick Douglass (Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, 1817–95), prominent abolitionists; Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902) and Susan Brownell Anthony (1820–1906), leaders in the women's suffrage movement; Clara Barton (1821–1912), founder of the American Red Cross; economist Henry George (1839–97), advocate of the single-tax theory; Eugene Victor Debs (1855–1926), labor leader and an outstanding organizer of the Socialist movement in the United States; Jane Addams (1860–1935), who pioneered in settlement house work; Robert Marion La Follette (1855–1925), a leader for progressive political reform in Wisconsin and in the US Senate; Margaret Higgins Sanger (1883–1966), pioneer in birth control; Norman Thomas (1884–1968), Socialist Party leader; and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–68), a central figure in the black civil rights movement and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964.
Religious leaders include Roger Williams (1603–83), an early advocate of religious tolerance in the United States; Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), New England preacher and theologian; Elizabeth Ann Seton (1774–1821), the first American canonized in the Roman Catholic Church; William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), a founder of American Unitarianism; Joseph Smith (1805–44), founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) and his chief associate, Brigham Young (1801–77); and Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), founder of the Christian Science Church. Paul Tillich (b.Germany, 1886–1965) and Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971) were outstanding Protestant theologians of international influence.
Famous US businessmen include Èleùthere Irénée du Pont de Nemours (b.France, 1771–1834), John Jacob Astor (Johann Jakob Ashdour, b.Germany, 1763–1848), Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794–1877), Andrew Carnegie (b.Scotland, 1835–1919), John Pierpont Morgan (1837–1913), John Davison Rockefeller (1839–1937), Andrew William Mellon (1855–1937), Henry Ford (1863–1947), and Thomas John Watson (1874–1956).
The first US author to be widely read outside the United States was Washington Irving (1783–1859). James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851) was the first popular US novelist. Three noted historians were William Hickling Prescott (1796–1859), John Lothrop Motley (1814–77), and Francis Parkman (1823–93). The writings of two men of Concord, Mass.—Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–82) and Henry David Thoreau (1817–62)—influenced philosophers, political leaders, and ordinary men and women in many parts of the world. The novels and short stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–64) explore New England's Puritan heritage. Herman Melville (1819–91) wrote the powerful novel Moby-Dick, a symbolic work about a whale hunt that has become an American classic. Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910) is the best-known US humorist. Other leading novelists of the later 19th and early 20th centuries were William Dean Howells (1837–1920), Henry James (1843–1916), Edith Wharton (1862–1937), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945), Willa Cather (1873–1947), and Sinclair Lewis (1885–1951), first US winner of the Nobel Prize for literature (1930). Later Nobel Prize–winning US novelists include Pearl Sydenstricker Buck (1892–1973), in 1938; William
Chief Justices of the United States, 1789–2003
NAME | BORN | DIED | APPOINTED | SUPREME COURT TERM | MAJOR COURT DEVELOPMENTS | |
1 | John Jay | New York City 12 December 1745 | Bedford, N.Y., 17 May 1829 | Washington | October 1789 June 1795 | Organized court, established procedures. |
2 | John Rutledge | September 1739 | Charleston, S.C., 18 July 1800 | Washington | Presided for one term in 1795, but Senate refused to confirm his appointment. | |
3 | Oliver Ellsworth | Windsor, Conn., 29 April 1745 | Windsor, Conn. 26 Nov. 1807 | Washington | March 1796 December 1800 | |
4 | John Marshall | Fauquier County, Va., 24 September 1755 | Philadelphia, Pa. 6 July 1835 | Adams | February 1801 July 1835 | Established principle of judicial review ( Marbury v. Madison , 1803); formulated concept of implied powers ( McCulloch v. Maryland , 1819). |
5 | Roger Brooke Taney | Calvert County, Md., 17 March 1777 | Washington, D.C., 12 October 1864 | Jackson | March 1836 October 1864 | Held that slaves could not become citizens, ruled Missouri Compromise illegal ( Dred Scott v. Sanford , 1857). |
6 | Salmon Portland Chase | Cornish, N.H., 13 January 1808 | New York, N.Y. 7 May 1873 | Lincoln | December 1864 May 1873 | Ruled military trials of civilians illegal ( Ex parte Milligan, 1866); Chase presided at A. Johnson's impeachment trial. |
7 | Morrison Remick Waite | Old Lynne, Conn., 29 November 1816 | Washington, D.C., 23 March 1888 | Grant | March 1874 March 1888 | Held that businesses affecting the "public interest" are subject to state regulation ( Munn v. Illinois , 1877). |
8 | Melville Weston Fuller | Augusta, Me., 11 February 1833 | Sorvento, Me., 4 July 1910 | Cleveland | October 1888 July 1910 | Issued first opinions on cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act. ( US v. E.C. Knight Co., 1895; Northern Securities Co. v. US , 1904); held the income tax unconstitutional ( Pollock v. Farmers' Loan , 1895). |
9 | Edward Douglass White | Lafourche Parish, La., 3 November 1845 | Washington, D.C., 19 May 1921 | Taft | December 1910 May 1921 | Further qualified the Sherman Antitrust Act ( Standard Oil Co. v. US , 1911) by applying the "rule of reason." |
10 | William Howard Taft | Cincinnati, Ohio 15 September 1857 | Washington, D.C., 8 March 1930 | Harding | July 1921 February 1930 | Held against congressional use of taxes for social reform ( Bailey v. Drexel Furniture , 1922). |
11 | Charles Evans Hughes | Glens Falls, N.Y., 11 April 1862 | Osterville, Mass., 27 August 1948 | Hoover | February 1930 June 1941 | Upheld constitutionality of National Labor Relations Act, Social Security Act, invalidated National Industrial Recovery Act ( Schechter v. US , 1935); F. Roosevelt's attempt to pack Court opposed. |
12 | Harlan Fiske Stone | Chesterfield, N.H., 11 October 1872 | Washington, D.C., 22 April 1946 | F Roosevelt | July 1941 April 1946 | Upheld Court's power to invalidate state laws ( Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona , 1945). |
13 | Frederick Moore Vinson | Louisa, Ky., 22 January 1890 | Washington, D.C., 8 September 1953 | Truman | June 1946 September 1953 | Overturned federal seizure of steel mills ( Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. v. Sawyer , 1952), Vinson dissenting. |
14 | Earl Warren | Los Angeles, Calif., 19 March 1891 | Washington, D.C., 9 July 1974 | Eisenhower | October 1953 June 1969 | Mandated public school desegregation ( Brown v. Topeka, Kans., Board of Education , 1954) and reapportionment of state legislatures ( Baker v. Carr , 1962); upheld rights of suspects in police custody ( Miranda v. Arizona , 1966). |
15 | Warren Earl Burger | St. Paul, Minn., 17 September 1907 | Washington, D.C., 25 June 1995 | Nixon | June 1969 August 1986 | Legalized abortion ( Roe v. Wade , 1973); rejected claim of executive privilege in a criminal case ( US v. Nixon , 1974); first female justice (1981). |
16 | William Hubbs Rehnquist | Shorewood Village, Wis., 1 October 1924 | Nixon | September 1986 | Applied constitutional prohibition against taking of property without compensation to invalidate government regulation of property. ( Nollan v. California Coastal Commission, 1987). Strengthened states' rights although invalidated Florida election procedures (Bush v. Gore, 2000) on equal protection grounds. Limited enforcement of school desegregation. Narrowed the scope of affirmative action. |
Faulkner (1897–1962), in 1949; Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), in 1954; John Steinbeck (1902–68), in 1962; Saul Bellow (b.Canada, 1915), in 1976; and Isaac Bashevis Singer (b.Poland, 1904–91), in 1978. Among other noteworthy writers are James Thurber (1894–1961), Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (1896–1940), Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938), Richard Wright (1908–60), Eudora Welty (1909–2001), John Cheever (1912–82), Norman Mailer (b.1923), James Baldwin (1924–87), John Updike (b.1932), and Philip Roth (b.1933).
Noted US poets include Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–82), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–49), Walt Whitman (1819–92), Emily Dickinson (1830–86), Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), Edward Estlin Cummings (1894–1962), Hart Crane (1899–1932), and Langston Hughes (1902–67). Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and Nobel laureate Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888–1965) lived and worked abroad for most of their careers. Wystan Hugh Auden (b.England, 1907–73), who became an American citizen in 1946, published poetry and criticism. Elizabeth Bishop (1911–79), Robert Lowell (1917–77), Allen Ginsberg (1926–97), and Sylvia Plath (1932–63) are among the best-known poets since World War II. Robert Penn Warren (1905–89) won the Pulitzer Prize for both fiction and poetry and became the first US poet laureate. Carl Sandburg (1878–1967) was a noted poet, historian, novelist, and folklorist. The foremost US dramatists are Eugene (Gladstone) O'Neill (1888–1953), who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1936; Tennessee Williams (Thomas Lanier Williams, 1911–83); Arthur Miller (b.1915); and Edward Albee (b.1928). Neil Simon (b.1927) is among the nation's most popular playwrights and screenwriters.
Two renowned painters of the early period were John Singleton Copley (1738–1815) and Gilbert Stuart (1755–1828). Outstanding 19th-century painters were James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), Winslow Homer (1836–1910), Thomas Eakins (1844–1916), Mary Cassatt (1845–1926), Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847–1917), John Singer Sargent (b.Italy, 1856–1925), and Frederic Remington (1861–1909). More recently, Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Georgia O'Keeffe (1887–1986), Thomas Hart Benton (1889–1975), Charles Burchfield (1893–1967), Norman Rockwell (1894–1978), Ben Shahn (1898–1969), Mark Rothko (b.Russia, 1903–70), Jackson Pollock (1912–56), Andrew Wyeth (b.1917), Robert Rauschenberg (b.1925), and Jasper Johns (b.1930) have achieved international recognition.
Sculptors of note include Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848–1907), Gaston Lachaise (1882–1935), Jo Davidson (1883–1952), Daniel Chester French (1850–1931), Alexander Calder (1898–1976), Louise Nevelson (b.Russia, 1899–1988), and Isamu Noguchi (1904–88). Henry Hobson Richardson (1838–86), Louis Henry Sullivan (1856–1924), Frank Lloyd Wright (1869–1959), Louis I. Kahn (b.Estonia, 1901–74), and Eero Saarinen (1910–61) were outstanding architects. Contemporary architects of note include Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983), Edward Durrell Stone (1902–78), Philip Cortelyou Johnson(b.1906), and Ieoh Ming Pei (b.China, 1917). The United States has produced many fine photographers, notably Mathew B. Brady (1823?–96), Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946), Edward Steichen (1879–1973), Edward Weston (1886–1958), Ansel Adams (1902–84), and Margaret Bourke-White (1904–71).
Outstanding figures in the motion picture industry are D. W. (David Lewelyn Wark) Griffith (1875–1948), Sir Charles Spencer "Charlie" Chaplin (b.England, 1889–1978), Walter Elias "Walt" Disney (1906–66), and George Orson Welles (1915–85). John Ford (1895–1973), Howard Winchester Hawks (1896–1977), Frank Capra (b.Italy, 1897–1991), Sir Alfred Hitchcock (b.England, 1899–1980), and John Huston (1906–87) were influential motion picture directors; Mel Brooks (Kaminsky, b.1926), George Lucas (b.1944), and Steven Spielberg (b.1947) have achieved remarkable popular success. Woody Allen (Allen Konigsberg, b.1935) has written, directed, and starred in comedies on stage and screen. World-famous American actors and actresses include the Barrymores, Ethel (1879–1959) and her brothers Lionel (1878–1954) and John (1882–1942); Humphrey Bogart (1899–1957); James Cagney (1899–1986); Spencer Tracy (1900–1967); Helen Hayes Brown (1900–93); Clark Gable (1901–60); Joan Crawford (Lucille Fay LeSueur, 1904–77); Cary Grant (Alexander Archibald Leach, b.England, 1904–86); Greta Garbo (Greta Louisa Gustafsson, b.Sweden, 1905–90); Henry Fonda (1905–82) and his daughter, Jane (b.1937); John Wayne (Marion Michael Morrison, 1907–79); Bette (Ruth Elizabeth) Davis (1908–89); Katharine Hepburn (1909–2003); Judy Garland (Frances Gumm, 1922–69); Marlon Brando (b.1924); Marilyn Monroe (Norma Jean Mortenson, 1926–62); and Dustin Hoffman (b.1937). Among other great entertainers are W. C. Fields (William Claude Dukenfield, 1880–1946), Al Jolson (Asa Yoelson, b.Russia, 1886–1950), Jack Benny (Benjamin Kubelsky, 1894–1974), Fred Astaire (Fred Austerlitz, 1899–1987), Bob (Leslie Townes) Hope (b.England, 1903–2003), Bing (Harry Lillis) Crosby (1904–78), Frank (Francis Albert) Sinatra (1915–98), Elvis Aaron Presley (1935–77), and Barbra (Barbara Joan) Streisand (b.1942). The first great US "showman" was Phineas Taylor Barnum (1810–91).
The foremost composers are Edward MacDowell (1861–1908), Charles Ives (1874–1954), Ernest Bloch (b.Switzerland, 1880–1959), Virgil Thomson (1896–89), Roger Sessions (1896–1985), Roy Harris (1898–1979), Aaron Copland (1900–90), Elliott Carter (b.1908), Samuel Barber (1910–81), John Cage (1912–92), and Leonard Bernstein (1918–90). George Rochberg (b.1918), George Crumb (b.1929), Steve Reich (b.1936), and Philip Glass (b.1937) have won more recent followings. The songs of Stephen Collins Foster (1826–64) have achieved folksong status. Leading composers of popular music are John Philip Sousa (1854–1932), George Michael Cohan (1878–1942), Jerome Kern (1885–1945), Irving Berlin (Israel Baline, b.Russia, 1888–1989), Cole Porter (1893–1964), George Gershwin (1898–1937), Richard Rodgers (1902–79), Woody Guthrie (1912–67), Stephen Joshua Sondheim (b.1930), Paul Simon (b.1941), and Bob Dylan (Robert Zimmerman, b.1941). Preeminent in the blues traditions are Leadbelly (Huddie Ledbetter, 1888–1949), Bessie Smith (1898?–1937), and Muddy Waters (McKinley Morganfield, 1915–83). Leading jazz figures include the composers Scott Joplin (1868–1917), James Hubert "Eubie" Blake (1883–1983), Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington (1899–1974), and William "Count" Basie (1904–84), and performers Louis Armstrong (1900–1971), Billie Holiday (Eleanora Fagan, 1915–59), John Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie (1917–93), Charlie "Bird" Parker (1920–55), John Coltrane (1926–67), and Miles Davis (1926–91).
Many foreign-born musicians have enjoyed personal and professional freedom in the United States; principal among them were pianists Artur Schnabel (b.Austria, 1882–1951), Arthur Rubinstein (b.Poland, 1887–1982), Rudolf Serkin (b.Bohemia, 1903–91), Vladimir Horowitz (b.Russia, 1904–89), and violinists Jascha Heifetz (b.Russia, 1901–87) and Isaac Stern (b.USSR, 1920). Among distinguished instrumentalists born in the United States are Benny Goodman (1909–86), a classical as well as jazz clarinetist, and concert pianist Van Cliburn (Harvey Lavan, Jr., b.1934). Singers Paul Robeson (1898–1976), Marian Anderson (1897–1993), Maria Callas (Maria Kalogeropoulos, 1923–77), Leontyne Price (b.1927), and Beverly Sills (Belle Silverman, b.1929) have achieved international acclaim. Isadora Duncan (1878–1927) was one of the first US dancers to win fame abroad. Martha Graham (1893–91) pioneered in modern dance. George Balanchine (b.Russia, 1904–83), Agnes De Mille (1905–93), Jerome Robbins (1918–98), Paul Taylor (b.1930), and Twyla Tharp (b.1941) are leading choreographers; Martha Graham (1893–1991) pioneered in modern dance.
Among the many noteworthy sports stars are baseball's Tyrus Raymond "Ty" Cobb (1886–1961) and George Herman "Babe" Ruth (1895–1948); football's Samuel Adrian "Sammy" Baugh (b.1914), Jim Brown (b.1936), Francis A. "Fran" Tarkenton (b.1940), and Orenthal James Simpson (b.1947); and golf's Robert Tyre "Bobby" Jones (1902–71) and Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias (1914–56). William Tatum "Bill" Tilden (1893–1953) and Billie Jean (Moffitt) King (b.1943) have starred in tennis; Joe Louis (Joseph Louis Barrow, 1914–81) and Muhammad Ali (Cassius Marcellus Clay, b.1942) in boxing; William Felton "Bill" Russell (b.1934) and Wilton Norman "Wilt" Chamberlain (1936–99) in basketball; Mark Spitz (b.1950) in swimming; Eric Heiden (b.1958) in speed skating; and Jesse Owens (1913–80) in track and field.
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